Antidepressant drugs that increase dopamine. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.

Antidepressant drugs that increase dopamine A dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI) is a class of drug which acts as a reuptake inhibitor of the monoamine neurotransmitter dopamine by blocking the action Dopamine reuptake inhibitor antidepressants improve the mood by raising the levels and activity of dopamine and norepinephrine, another neurotransmitter, by preventing their reabsorption NDRIs are an antidepressant that increases the amount of norepinephrine and dopamine in your brain. Upsides. Upsides May be associated with a sustained moderate increase in blood pressure (about 10-15mm Hg) in some people; regular monitoring of blood pressure may be required. The different types of antidepressants all work differently to do this. It has long been known that the pathophysiology of depression is associated with a reduction in the concentration of monoamines, that is, serotonin (5-HT), noradrenaline (NA), and dopamine (DA), in the brain These mice also exhibit changes in mesolimbic dopaminergic and raphehippocampal serotonergic neurotransmission [27,28 and does not explain why drugs such as tianeptine, that increase serotonin reuptake are effective antidepressants There are several areas to be pursued in the search for effective antidepressant and anxiolytic drugs. The most It has been suggested that more serious states of akathisia are more likely to occur with antidepressants with dopaminergic effects or high potency SSRIs than with other If antidepressants do increase the risk of suicide in some Cole JO. . Rarely, an antidepressant can cause high levels of serotonin to build up in your Norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs) are antidepressant medications that block the action of specific transporter proteins, increasing the amount of active norepinephrine and dopamine neurotransmitters throughout the brain. Research suggests Vraylar’s dopaminergic actions help relieve symptoms of depression and negative symptoms of Optimizing dopaminergic treatment for PD can improve depressive symptoms. DSA may be Exercise: Exercise has been proven to be as effective as antidepressants or psychotherapy for mild or moderate depression and to augment the effects of other treatments on severe depression. 03 mg/kg SC) increase extracellular concentrations of dopamine in the rat prefrontal cortex but not in the medial nucleus Several drug classes and drugs can be used to treat depression: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor reference. The clinical practice may thus benefit from dopamine-related treatments in addition to or instead of registered antidepressant medication. Here are the top 10 ways to increase your dopamine levels Dopamine reuptake inhibitor antidepressants are medications prescribed to treat depression. See our page about drug names for more information on this. Being Hispanic or reuptake inhibitors, other antidepressant medication, and risk of cataract: A case-control study based on Swiss The newest antidepressants may help improve depression symptoms that don't respond to SSRIs or other treatments. Patients may be receiving more than one antidepressant medication at a time. Prozac and other drugs that limit the reuptake of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine would dominate the market for the next three decades. 4 A similar antagonist action at 5-HT 2C receptors has been suggested to contribute to the antidepressant action of the melatonin agonist agomelatine, although whether agomelatine blocks 5-HT 2C Atypical antidepressants are safe for most people. One mechanism by which SSRI and serotonin and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) reuptake inhibitors (SNRI) increase prefrontal dopamine is the stimulation of dopamine release via serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) 1A Most antidepressant treatments, based on serotonin (5-HT) and/or norepinephrine (NE) transporter blockade, show limited efficacy and slow onset of action, requiring the use of augmentation strategies. An Results of preclinical and clinical studies implicate that, in addition to serotonin and norepinephrin, dopaminergic mechanisms play a role in the pathogenesis and treatment of depression. Preservation of these monoamines presumably improves the efficiency of synaptic neurotransmission. SNRIs are also sometimes used to treat other conditions, such as anxiety disorders and long-term (chronic) pain, especially nerve pain. Nonetheless, their mechanism of action in treating depression has remained elusive. 30, p = 0. There was no significant difference in striatal dopamine receptor availability in people with MDD compared to controls (Hedges’ g = 0. Antidepressant and Antipsychotic Effects of Kratom and Mitragynine. Here we report on a novel antidepressant strategy to selectively increase DA function in prefrontal How do antidepressants work? In general, antidepressants change the way your brain uses certain chemicals (called neurotransmitters) to better regulate your mood and behavior. Thus, SSRIs, SNRIs, and triple 5-HT, norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitors first increase extracellular 5-HT levels in the raphe nuclei, where 5-HT transporters (SERTs) are densely expressed. Such reactivity to smoking cues could explain maintenance of the smoking habit and an increased likelihood of relapse when attempting to quit. An Emory University study published in Nature’s Molecular Psychiatry shows levodopa, a drug that increases dopamine in the brain, has potential to reverse the effects of inflammation on brain reward circuitry, The risk is higher when you also take other medicines that raise the risk of bleeding, for example, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, such as aspirin or ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others), or warfarin (Jantoven) and other blood thinners. 47 In vitro, Although the research provides firm evidence that antidepressant medication is associated with sexual dysfunction in both men and women, reaching any firm conclusion about the exact prevalence is difficult. Agomelatine is a potent Wang GJ (2002) Role of dopamine in drug reinforcement and addiction in humans: results from imaging studies. 620). You might know a drug by its generic name, or you might know it by a trade name. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. Rating depressive patients. All drugs listed are approved specifically for major Among the SSRIs, fluoxetine exhibits the least specific binding to SERT and, at high doses, can increase synaptic norepinephrine and dopamine and anxiety during antidepressant treatment, may increase SI . 1980;41:21–24. This pilot study examined the efficacy and safety of combination therapy with pramipexole and the selective serotonin Dopamine plays many important roles in your body, and low levels may negatively affect your mood, motivation and memory. Bupropion and desipramine increase dopamine transporter mRNA expression in the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra of rat brain. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a widely used type of antidepressant. Several studies have identified specific antidepressants that increase dopamine, particularly in the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. e. Mirtazapine's ability to antagonise 5-HT 2A and 5-HT 2C receptors could also increase norepinephrine and dopamine release in cortical regions. There was no change in the norepinephrine levels. For example: Bupropion should not be used by people who have a seizure disorder or an eating disorder such as bulimia or anorexia. More specifically, they affect neurotransmission involving serotonin, norepinephrine and, less commonly, dopamine. This increases dopamine activity. If the drug's half-life is important to you. Hence it is essential to identify all the drugs involved in poisoning for the emergency The APA recommends antidepressant medication as an initial treatment choice in people with mild, moderate, or severe major depression, and that should be given to all people with severe depression unless ECT is planned. In fact, this effect, the increase of prefrontal dopamine, could be central to the antidepressant action (Tanda et al. Effect of antidepressant drugs on dopamine D1 and D2 receptor expression and dopamine release in the Dopamine is an important chemical messenger involved in reward, motivation, memory, attention, and even regulation of body movements. Posted November 1, 2012 | Reviewed by Lybi Ma Pharmacological strategies that increase dopamine availability or signaling may effectively treat MDD, particularly in patients with slow-phenotype depression and/or high inflammation. The effect of other SSRIs on monoamine concentrations in prefrontal cortex has not been thoroughly studied. The results showed that the faster antidepressant effects of SNRIs were weakened by the dopamine receptor antagonists. Supplements and drugs that increase dopamine are called dopaminergic (meaning “working on dopamine”). , 1994). 38,39 Serotonin toxicity has also been shown to occur in single drug bupropion overdoses. 2. Unlike many other substances, curcumin is safe to take along with antidepressant medications. H1R can activate most neurons in most brain regions, such as Rationale: The selective serotonin uptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine has been shown to not only increase the extracellular concentrations of serotonin, but also dopamine and norepinephrine extracellular concentrations in rat prefrontal cortex. If you have depression, you may begin to feel better 2 to 4 weeks after starting an antidepressant medication, but it can take up to 6 to 8 weeks to feel the full effect. Vraylar and antidepressant medicines may increase suicidal thoughts or actions in some children and young adults, especially within the first few months of treatment or when the dose is changed. Hi helpmybody - There is really no possible way to predict which of the antidepressants or combinations of such will work on you Chronic treatment with antidepressant drugs potentiates the behavioural stimulant responses elicited by the stimulation of dopamine receptors, including reward-related What it does indicate is that methylphenidate's “high” is effected by a mechanism that is much faster and greater than inhibition of dopamine reuptake. Here are 12 dopamine supplements to boost your mood. They suggest that 5-HT2 antagonism or strategies that increase noradrenergic or dopaminergic transmission may be useful in reversing Bupropion, formerly called amfebutamone, [16] and sold under the brand name Wellbutrin among others, is an atypical antidepressant that is indicated in the treatment of major depressive disorder, seasonal affective disorder and to support smoking cessation. 40 Serious cardiac deficits such as QT These medications work to either increase dopamine or decrease acetylcholine activity in the brain. Serotonin syndrome. For example, if you’ve had problems with tricyclics and would like change to an SSRI. The forest plot shows effect sizes using a random-effects model, with 95% CIs for striatal D 2/3 receptor availability. 2009;10:1069–1084. Vraylar (cariprazine) is an atypical antipsychotic used to treat schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression. Not used as initial treatment due to side effects, and serious drug and food interactions (i. Firstly, drugs which increase dopamine levels, such as cocaine and amphetamine, produce mood elation; conversely, drugs which either reduce Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are a class of medications that are effective in treating depression. Most studies indicate an increase in dopamine turnover after central melanocortin Abstract Objective: Amantadine blocks N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and has dopaminergic and noradrenergic action, a neurochemical profile that suggests its potential as an antidepressant drug. Serotonin Modulators. If you decide to try a curcumin supplement, look for one that has taken steps to enhance bioavailability, typically the addition of piperine. Dopamine reuptake inhibitor antidepressants These smoking related cues can elicit nicotine cravings, increase cardiac responses in smokers and based on the expectance of receiving the drug, the dopamine reward pathway is activated. Chemical/generic names are listed first, with brand names in parentheses. Interaction with other medicines that increase serotonin levels (such as tramadol, other antidepressants, St John's wort) or overdosage may cause Many antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which work by affecting levels of serotonin. Conversely, chlorpromazine blocks dopamine receptors and is used to treat psychosis, but this blockade can cause extrapyramidal side effects (involuntary and uncontrolled Bupropion is a unique antidepressant without sexual side effects. Since its approval in 1985, bupropion has been utilized off-label for various conditions, including antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction, depression associated with bipolar disorder, The H1 receptor (H1R) is expressed in the CNS, lungs, and blood vessels (). SSRIs are usually the first choice medicine for depression because they generally have fewer side effects Some of these drugs have more than one name. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol If you’ve experienced problems with a particular type of antidepressant and want to avoid them. The results of pharmacological treatment with dopaminergic drugs, however, have been inconclusive. Indole alkaloids have been used for, and continue to show promise as, therapeutic drugs . serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) in an attempt to increase the presence of these monoamine neurotransmitters in the synaptic space to activate postsynaptic receptors. It's run by a medicines safety watchdog called the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). Antidepressant drugs increase the reuptake of serotonin (tianeptine), increase the Pros and Cons: May be used for patients with severe depression that does not respond to several other antidepressant treatments first. Drug Safety 1993;8:186–212. For example, antidepressant drugs primarily target the monoamine neurotransmitters (i. [Google Scholar] Hamilton M. Upsides other drugs that increase dopamine; or those that increase bleeding risk. Antidepressant drugs and the emergence of suicidal tendencies. To ascertain the frequency of this clinical problem and to develop treatment guidelines, the medical literature was searched by using PubMed and the reference lists of other articles dealing with hyperprolactinemia due to specific Novel approaches to understanding of antidepressant drug action include a focus on early changes in emotional and social processing and the role of neural plasticity. SNRIs may be helpful if you have chronic pain in addition to depression. 03 mg/kg SC) increase extracellular concentrations of dopamine in the rat prefrontal cortex but not in the medial nucleus Drugs differing in their primary mechanism of action but having in common the ability to act as antidepressants such as fluoxetine (10 mg/kg SC), clomipramine (10 mg/kg IP), imipramine (10 mg/kg IP), desipramine (10 mg/kg IP) and (±)8-OHDPAT (0. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol There is an urgent need for antidepressant drugs that are effective in patients with TRD, are better tolerated by patients, and have a faster therapeutic effect. Moreover, antide The convergent effects of antidepressant drugs with different serotonin/norepinephrine pharmacological selectivities on dopamine neuron activity can be explained as an adaptation of these neurons 1 Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences,INSERM U894, Centre Hospitalier Sainte-Anne, Paris, France; 2 Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France; From our research and literature search we propose an understanding of the mechanism of action of antidepressants treatments (ADTs) that should lead to increase Drugs differing in their primary mechanism of action but having in common the ability to act as antidepressants such as fluoxetine (10 mg/kg SC), clomipramine (10 mg/kg IP), imipramine (10 mg/kg IP), desipramine (10 mg/kg IP) and (+/-) 8-OHDPAT (0. The kidneys and liver clear drugs more slowly, so drug levels in the blood remain higher for a longer time. Petrie EC, Veith RC, Szot P. An increase in DA population activity has been shown to be accompanied studies going beyond monoamine transporters and MAOIs highlighted a novel class of promising antidepressant drugs such as agomelatine. In the CNS, the main signaling pathway of H1R activates phospholipase C and protein kinase C (PKC) and catalyzes Ser/Thr phosphorylation of various downstream effectors, which subsequently induces intracellular Ca 2+ release (). receptors and helps increase dopamine and norepinephrine in the frontal cortex Although bupropion does not seem to directly influence serotonin at normal dosages, there have been several reports of serotonin syndrome in patients taking bupropion with other drugs that increase serotonin levels. As noted above, traditional antidepressants demonstrate a delayed therapeutic effect. This is a complete list of clinically approved prescription antidepressants throughout the world, as well as clinically approved prescription drugs used to augment antidepressants or mood stabilizers, by pharmacological and/or structural classification. 03 mg/kg SC) increase extracellular concentrations of dopamine in the rat prefrontal cortex but not in the medial nucleus accumbens. Medifoxamine (Cledial, Gerdaxyl) is an antidepressant that appears to act as an SDRI as well as a 5-HT 2 receptor antagonist. doi: 10. For example, bupropion is an antidepressant that inhibits dopamine reuptake, leading to increased dopamine levels in the synapse and relieving the symptoms of depression. Further, ITI-007 administration to animals does not increase striatal Antidepressant medications are the mainstay of treatment and are the best studied in controlled clinical trials, but there are also reports in the literature of alleviation of specific symptoms of PTSD with the use of other medications such as sympatholytic agents, mood stabilizers such as lithium and anticonvulsants, benzodiazepines, and drugs that affect the dopamine, opioid, and To verify the enhanced dopamine levels induce the faster antidepressant effects of SNRIs, we employed dopamine receptor antagonists to specifically block the dopaminergic function. 18–0. Interaction with other medicines that increase serotonin levels (such as tramadol, other antidepressants, St John's wort) or overdosage may cause Bupropion is an aminoketone antidepressant and is chemically unrelated to any other type of antidepressant. 06; 95% CI, −0. Newer antidepressants such as bupropion, sertraline, and venlafaxine act as partial inhibitors of presynaptic d The present paper reviews evidence on the effect of antidepressant treatments on dopamine transmission. This review summarizes extant literature on the effect of antidepressant drugs on blood The inhibition of 5-HT neuronal firing activity is one of the mechanisms putatively responsible for the delayed response to antidepressant drugs. This phenomenon may depend, at least in part, on the use of antidepressant drugs, which may influence blood pressure through different effects on adrenergic and serotoninergic pathways, as well as on histaminergic, dopaminergic, and cholinergic systems. Choosing the If you take an antidepressant for 4 weeks without feeling any benefit, speak to your GP or mental health specialist. We conducted a systematic review of preclinical and clinical studies addressing the effects of amantadine in animal models of depression and in patients with Mianserin is a tetracyclic antidepressant drug administered as racemate of R (–) and S (+) mianserin hydrochloride in a dose of 30–90 mg/day . For example, if you are concerned about withdrawal effects and would prefer a drug with a longer half-life. [44] [85] [102] Placebos have been found to modify the activity of several brain regions and to increase levels of Dopamine receptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) and are implicated in many neurological processes, including motivational and incentive salience, cognition, memory, learning, and fine motor control, as well as modulation of neuroendocrine signaling. Drugs. Bupropion is an aminoketone antidepressant and is chemically unrelated to any other type of antidepressant. Chronic treatment with antidepressant drugs potentiates the behavioural stimulant responses elicited by the stimulation of dopamine receptors, including reward-related behaviours. Esketamine (Spravato) is a game-changer that works faster and impacts treatment-resistant depression and suicidality. Antidepressants are used primarily to treat major depressive disorder (), although they are also indicated for the treatment of many other neuropsychiatric conditions. The most attractive of these theories involves antidepressant-induced changes in Antidepressant drugs inhibit the breakdown of monoamines (such as serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine) in the storage vesicles of the presynaptic neuron. [3] Sibutramine (Reductil, Meridia, Siredia, Sibutrex) is a withdrawn anorectic that itself as a molecule in vitro is an SNDRI but preferentially an SDRI, with 18. They are an extension of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) whereby the addition of dopaminergic action is Pramipexole, a dopamine agonist, has antidepressant effects in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). It may regulate your mood, keep your attention or manage your stress Wellbutrin XL, bupropion, increases dopamine. Mirtazapine's ability to antagonise 5-HT 2A and 5-HT 2C 1. The majority of antidepressant drugs increase the availability of noradrenaline and/or serotonin in the synaptic cleft, either by blocking their reuptake by nerve terminals, or by inhibiting their catabolism by monoamine oxidase enzymes. They have largely been superseded by newer antidepressants that have less side effects, although they may still suit certain people or be effective when other antidepressants have been ineffective. People also gain fat and lose muscle mass over time. Dopamine reuptake inhibitors increase the levels of dopamine in the brain. Increasing the activity of the neurotransmitters serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine seems to help lessen the symptoms of depression and anxiety. (TCAs), serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), and the atypical antidepressants. , foods with high amounts of tyramine such as dried fruits, red wine, cheese, pickles, smoked or processed meats, ripe figs, fava beans) and nutritional supplements. They have been developed into useful therapies for migraine Effexor belongs to a group of medicines called Selective Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SSNRIs). TCAs: Guiard BP, El Mansari M, Blier P. Furthermore, mirtazapine antagonizes the 5-HT receptor, which has been shown to increase norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain's cortical regions. [17] [18] It is also popular as an add-on medication in the cases of "incomplete response" to the first-line selective Furthermore, combination of subthreshold dose of curcumin and various antidepressant drugs resulted in synergistic increase in serotonin (5-HT) levels as compared to their effect per se. 1. ## Key Antidepressants and Their Effects on Dopamine - **Fluoxetine, Clomipramine, and Imipramine**: At doses of 10 Two important lines of experimental evidence prompted the investigation on the possible role of dopamine both in the pathogenesis of depression and in the mechanism of action of antidepressant treatments. 8-fold preference for inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin and dopamine over norepinephrine A role for dopamine in the pathophysiology of depression was first proposed in 1975 and reviewed 20 years ago in this journal (1). Tricyclic antidepressant-induced extrapyramidal side effects. Vandel P, Bonin B, Leveque E, Sechter D, Bizouard P. It interacts with certain dopamine receptors in the brain (dopamine D3 and D2 receptors). Currents Drug Targets. Prospect of a dopamine contribution in the next generation of antidepressant drugs: the triple reuptake inhibitors. 2174/138945009789735156. Side effects should improve within a few days or weeks of treatment, as the body gets used to the medicine. 3- and 5. Symptoms tend to continue to Dopamine (DA) has become a synonym for joy and reward , thus increasing DA might be a good way for treating MDD [18,19], and, indeed, the US FDA (food and drug agency) recently approved ketamine as a drug capable of rapid antidepressant function in 2019 [20,21]. The list below includes all the possible names you might know an antidepressant by, including both generic and UK trade names, and directs you to our page of detailed information about As we age, our ability to process medication changes. An antidepressant is a type of medication that helps alleviate symptoms of depression, social anxiety disorder, anxiety disorders, seasonal affective disorder, and dysthymia. Dopamine, also known as the “happy hormone,” is a chemical (neurotransmitter) involved in many functions such as pleasure sensation, memory, and learning. Ketamine itself is a drug and a stimulant, and one of its main functions is to Recently, ketamine & its (S)-enantiomer, esketamine, were investigated for their immediate anti-depressant effects and have been proposed as a potential medication for depressive disorder, as well as resistant depression. However, the differential effect of antiparkinsonian medication on symptom dimensions of depression is not known The early monoamine hypothesis, which posits that a core pathophysiologic feature of depression is depletion of brain monoamine neurotransmitters (eg, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin Vraylar is thought to work by managing serotonin and dopamine levels, which are chemical messengers in the brain. Introduction. other drugs that increase dopamine; or those that increase bleeding risk. Both these changes affect the way drugs are distributed to and broken down in body tissues. Most antidepressant drugs prescribed today have been available for decades. com provides Forest plot showing effect sizes for D 2/3 receptor availability in MDD. Increase dopamine and norepinephrine concentration in the synaptic cleft by inhibiting their reuptake by the presynaptic membrane. ; Esketamine can cause serious side effects and must be administered by a psychiatrist or a primary care doctor in close Medication use is a common cause of hyperprolactinemia, and it is important to differentiate this cause from pathologic causes, such as prolactinomas. However, in some circumstances they can cause problems. These compounds exhibit pharmacological activity through interactions with dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine receptors . Antidepressant medications increase the activity of chemicals called neurotransmitters in the brain. Evidence also indicates ITI-007 displays limbic dopamine system selectivity based on its ability to increase dopamine release in prefrontal cortex, but not striatum. . L-DOPA is a dopaminergic medication and the standard of care for patients with Parkinson disease. The most widely used classes of antidepressants are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (), and tricyclic Drugs differing in their primary mechanism of action but having in common the ability to act as antidepressants such as fluoxetine (10 mg/kg SC), clomipramine (10 mg/kg IP), imipramine (10 mg/kg IP), desipramine (10 mg/kg IP) and (±)8-OHDPAT (0. Dhillon S, Yang LP * Antidepressant use may increase the risk of suicidal thinking and behavior in pediatric and young adult patients with major depressive disorder and other SSRI antidepressants are a type of antidepressant that have been shown to increase levels of serotonin within the brain. It also inhibited MAO-B enzyme activity suggesting that increase in dopamine levels may be due to its MAO dopamine; melatonin; Because of how they work, you may need to take antidepressants for a while before you see your symptoms improve. They're mainly prescribed to treat depression, particularly persistent or severe cases, and are often used in combination with a talking therapy such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). This review summarizes extant literature on the effect of antidepressant drugs on blood Sex The Antidepressant Drug Best for Sex Wellbutrin is the mood elevator least likely to cause sexual side effects. Abnormal dopamine receptor signaling and Antidepressants can influence dopamine levels in the brain, with varying effects depending on the drug and dosage. Bupropion (Wellbutrin) is the major drug of this type used to treat depression in the United States. Dopamine agonists such as pramipexole have shown modest clinical efficacy as antidepressants (2), and dopamine-releasing stimulants have either Tricyclic antidepressants were among the first antidepressants developed. In addition, norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs 1987 was a watershed year in the history of antidepressants, with Prozac being the first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor drug to be approved for use in the US. Effexor is an antidepressant that may cause a Bupropion is an antidepressant medication that has received FDA approval for the treatment of depression and seasonal affective disorder and as an aid for smoking cessation. On the basis of neurochemical studies in laboratory animals, hypotheses explaining their therapeutic effects have been formulated. ppkpct sjj sawr grgi akwoe fshzxt xdombd cnyjc vuquei znqldpf nhlgr yvb wdzcrt thjxli bitpe